The term computer supported cooperative work (CSCW) was first coined by Irene Greif and Paul M. Cashman in 1984, at a workshop attended by individuals interested in using technology to support people in their work (Grudin 1994). At about this same time, in 1987 Dr. Charles Findley presented the concept of Collaborative learning-work. According to Carstensen and Schmidt (2002), CSCW addresses “how collaborative activities and their coordination can be supported by means of computer systems.” On the one hand, many authors consider that CSCW and groupware are synonyms. On the other hand, different authors claim that while groupware refers to real computer-based systems, CSCW focuses on the study of tools and techniques of groupware as well as their psychological, social, and organizational effects. The definition of Wilson (1991) expresses the difference between these two concepts:
- CSCW [is] a generic term, which combines the understanding of the way people work in groups with the enabling technologies of computer networking, and associated hardware, software, services and techniques.
Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) is an approach to organisational process modelling and it can be used both for general problem solving and in the management of change. It was developed in England by academics at the University of Lancaster Systems Department through a ten year Action Research programme.
The methodology was developed from earlier systems engineering approaches, primarily by Professor Peter Checkland and colleagues such as Dr Brian Wilson. The primary use of SSM is in the analysis of complex situations where there are divergent views about the definition of the problem — “soft problems” (e.g. How to improve health services delivery; How to manage disaster planning; When should mentally disordered offenders be diverted from custody? What to do about homelessness amongst young people?). In such situations even the actual problem to be addressed may not be easy to agree. To intervene in such situations the soft systems approach uses the notion of a “system” as an interrogative device that will enable debate amongst concerned parties. In its ‘classic’ form the methodology consists of seven steps, with initial appreciation of the problem situation leading to the modelling of several human activity systems that might be thought relevant to the problem situation. By discussions and exploration of these the decision makers will arrive at consensus over what changes may be systemically desirable and situationally feasible. Later explanations of the ideas give a more sophisticated view of this systemic method, and do give more attention to locating the methodology in respect to its philosophical underpinnings. It is though the earlier classical view which is most widely used in practice.
There are several hundred documented examples of the successful use of SSM in many different fields, ranging from ecology, business and military logistics. It has been adopted by many organisations and incorporated into other approaches: in the 1990s for example it was the recommended planning tool for the UK government’s SSADM systems development methodology.
The general applicability of the approach has led to some criticisms that it is functionalist, non-emancipatory or supports the status quo and existing power structures; this is a claim that users would deny, arguing that the methodology itself can be none of these, it is the user of the methodology that may choose to employ it in such a way. The methodology has been described in several books and many academic articles.
SSM remains the most widely used and practical application of systems thinking, and other systems approaches such as Critical Systems Thinking (see separate entry) have incorporated many of its ideas
Ciborra’s main concept
Ciborra goes beyond the typical characterisation of improvisation as situated, pragmatic and contingent action by referring to the existential condition of the actor (his “moods feelings, affectations and fundamental attunement with the situation”). By eschewing the notion of the actor as a “robot” adapting to changing circumstances he reintroduces the personal human aspects that shape our encounters with the world and shows how our affectations define the situation at hand and so shape action.
As expounded by Ciborra, Bricolage can be seen as the constant re-ordering of people and resources, the constant “trying out” and experimentation that is the true hallmark of organisational change. But Bricolage is not a random trying out, Ciborra emphasises that it is a trying out based on leveraging the world “as defined by the situation”.
Hospitality is Claudio’s attempt to present an alternative conception of how IT/IS is implemented. He rejects the scientific explanations of IS implementation (planning, design, goals, targets, methods, procedures) and instead views technology as an alien embodying and exemplifying its alien culture and affordances. Successful implementation is achieved when the “host” organisation (ie that implementing the technology) is able to extend courtesy and to absorb and appropriate/assimilate the alien culture where it offers advantages such as new ways of working. Claudio also warns that the host must beware that the guest can become quickly become hostile.
Ciborra claims that much of the IS and IT world (particularly their strategic management, marketing, academia and training organisations) are in crisis. He teaches that this is because IS and IT are treated as scientific disciplines when in fact they are social disciplines and hence thinking about them is based in an inappropriate paradigm which we might call “Positivism” (although Ciborra does not use this term).
Ciborra drew on the work of Roberto Unger and showed how IS can embody and so be enacted as Formative Context.
- Drift
- Caring
- The Platform Organisation
Claudio Ciborra: the Labyrinths of Information: Challenging the Wisdom of Systems – Book Review
2002, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 195 pages
Ciborra’s book is eloquently summarized by John Seely Brown’s quote on the back of the book: ‘Ciborra brings his rich understanding of bricolage and phenomenology to the fore in providing fresh insights about organizations and the building and use of complex information systems.’ For those willing to challenge their day-to-day involvement in the world of information systems (IS), this book is thought provoking. It is, however, a version of a number of papers the author has published over recent years: the added value is that the papers have been reworked to read as a book.
The introduction invites the reader to leave behind the so-called scientific approach to IS when entering the real world. Two of Ciborra’s key concepts, ‘bricolage’ and ‘tinkering’, are explained. In the context of bricolage, he refers to the MIR space station, which in spite of being a technical impossibility is still up and running. Soviet and later Russian scientists are masters in bricolage. Within a socio-technical tradition, the author draws the attention to the important role people play in IS design and development. Although not referred to explicitly, the reader will also recognize much constructivist thinking in the book. The overall tone of the book is to bring management information systems (MISs) into the real world, which is imperfect, co-created but very much alive.
Chapter 2 (‘Krisis’) reports on some recent and pertinent ICT success stories. Not only have these advances in technologies and business applications been ignored by MIS research, it would have been impossible to develop them using classical IS development methods. Should we be concerned with method? If so, has MIS failed as an academic discipline? The false belief in a correct geometric world often disregards the actors. The author illustrates this point with two cases which have received much attention in academic literature: the Capability Maturity Model (CMM) and IS strategy alignment. He illustrates the weaknesses of the approaches and suggests we opt either for the ideal, or for the real.
Chapter 3 (‘Bricolage’) is used to develop some major concepts and arguments. Interesting trends in business are rarely dealt with in MIS research, and if they are it is often too late for the insights to be relevant. Business creates strategies that make these trends, often without any scientific support. Competitive advantage, as a method, is always copiable. The non-copiable difference is the corporate culture. Familiar examples of successful strategic IS developments (SABRE, Minitel, etc.) were never intended to be of strategic importance. Companies make strategy through bricolage and tinkering in order to overcome the cognitive barriers that stand in the way of innovation. An innovative project then suddenly becomes of strategic importance, ex post. What the author understands by ‘bricolage’ is highly situated, experience-based, competent improvisation: an evolutionary approach. The author positions the limited success of IS methodologies in the corner of a weak yet inflexible corporate strategy.
In Chapter 4 (‘Gestell’) the difference between infrastructure (the ‘gestell’) and MIS is developed. According to Heidegger, the essence of modern technology is the frame, the shelf, the skeleton. Infrastructure needs to be understood as socio-technical networks where components, usually considered as social and/or technical, are linked together into networks. The essence of an infrastructure is the movement, the enchainment, the multiple actions. The danger for a company is that the infrastructure becomes the ‘real world’. Ciborra draws up a corporate agenda for introducing this network view of MIS into a corporate setting.
Chapter 5 (‘Derive’) moves on to discuss the dynamics of ICT infrastructure as a socio-technical network. The corporate context plays a crucial role, as reality is often a runaway learning organization, dynamic and unpredictable. Situatedness, drifting, chaos rather than order, are some of the supporting ideas explored in this chapter. Ciborra compares industrial-age thinking (procedures) with thinking in a web of externalities. He strongly argues against procedures, since their neatness, structure and articulation focus mainly on the spatial dimension of IS, often ignoring the temporal dimension. This insight necessitates a new language for the age of dynamic efficiency, which is developed in Chapter 6 (‘Xenia’).
Ciborra describes ‘pathologies’ for failure, using concepts such as hospitality and teams instead of the more traditional concept of control. Companies should consider new technologies as an ambiguous stranger and the organization as the host. If the technology violates values, fights and identities it can turn into an enemy. Hospitality leads to innovation and learning, turning systems development methodologies into rituals.
In Chapter 7 (‘Shih’) the author elaborates the example of Olivetti. He argues that Olivetti is probably one of the first networked organizations, one that conceives its platform as a laboratory for rapid restructuring. It generates new combinations of resources efficiently as it works as a cognitive engine, enacted by a pool of flexible people. In this chapter it becomes very clear that Ciborra is talking about corporate strategy while referring to IS strategy. This opens an interesting discussion about the real subject of MIS and its future as an academic discipline. If IS strategy is indeed just corporate strategy, what can be expected from IS research methods?
In Chapter 8 (‘Kairos and Affectio’) Ciborra introduces ‘the theory of’ improvisation, and particularly the dynamic character of improvisation. He describes improvisation as situated action, always catching the latest circumstances in emergent problem-solving. With improvisation, one takes time, instead of being taken by the time. An improvising manager is in the situation; s/he takes care.
In his methodological annex, the author defends his personal approach and outlines what he calls ‘his dilettante approach’, which is what I would call the manual to Claudio Ciborra. He fuels the discussion about appropriate research methods in MIS and in doing so argues strongly for limiting models and methods.
What can be learned from this book? I would like to split this question into learning for the practising manager, and learning for the practical academic. I’m afraid that for the theoretical academic, the ideas raised by Ciborra are (unfortunately) too distant from what tends to concern him/her. MIS as an academic discipline would certainly benefit from a discussion of Ciborra’s ideas.
The practitioner will certainly recognize what s/he lives with every day when implementing IS. Ciborra neatly describes practice in terms of how it fails to obey the laws of systems design and development. He suggests attitudes and activities, which closely resemble procedures, to remedy the situation. He correctly stresses the role of people, but does not go far enough to illustrate what he really means by this undemanding statement. Above all, the book will be refreshing for those who have tried for years to work methodologically with IS and have failed without any apparent reason. They will enjoy this book. It sketches a kind of newly observed reality close to the practitioner’s heart.
For the practical academic it is an even more refreshing text, as it gathers and structures some of the fundamental ideas which have already been around for quite a number of years, but have always been voiced in the wings of the theatre, and not on the stage itself. It is neither the first publication nor is he the first author to have constructively critiqued the mainstream approach to MIS research and its applicability and importance for corporations. This book, however, makes no excuses for failures and methods, but clearly selects and advocates an alternative. This is a courageous choice, one that I certainly appreciate. I think this book is therefore a must for all those academics seriously interested in explorative MIS research on the one hand, and for those who are interested in corporate relevant research on the other.
The book considers IS strategy as identical to, or an integral part of corporate strategy, understanding strategy as an emergent process. How does this challenge ongoing MIS research? lf the practical relevance of methods and methodologies is limited, what then is the field of study of MIS? If MIS is indeed a social science (or socio-technical) would that imply a serious reorientation of major research efforts around the world?
These are the questions the book is likely to raise in the mind of the academic reader, who will probably need to put in more effort and to be more open-minded than the manager in order to benefit from the book. Ciborra cannot hide his roots or his interest in the world outside IS. Stimulating as this message is, the reader does tend to pay for this breadth with some baroque language. But then, labyrinths appeal to philosophical minds, and these questions need answering.
Walter Baets Universiteit Nyenrode, The Netherlands
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